FCL.200 Minimum age

Regulation (EU) 2020/359

Applicants for a PPL shall be at least 17 years old.

FCL.205 Conditions

Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011

Applicants for the issue of a PPL shall have fulfilled the requirements for the class or type rating for the aircraft used in the skill test, as established in Subpart H.

FCL.210 Training course

Regulation (EU) 2020/359

(a) Applicants for a PPL shall complete a training course at an ATO or a DTO.

(b) The course shall include theoretical knowledge and flight instruction appropriate to the privileges of the PPL applied for.

(c) Theoretical knowledge instruction and flight instruction may be completed at a DTO or at an ATO different from the one where applicants have commenced their training.

AMC1 FCL.210 PPL(A) Training course

ED Decision 2020/005/R

FLIGHT INSTRUCTION FOR THE PPL(A)

(a) Entry to training

Before being accepted for training an applicant should be informed that the appropriate medical certificate must be obtained before solo flying is permitted.

(b) Flight instruction

(1) The PPL(A) flight instruction syllabus takes into account the principles of threat and error management and also covers:

(i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, aircraft inspection and servicing;

(ii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, collision avoidance precautions and procedures;

(iii) control of the aircraft by external visual reference;

(iv) flight at critically low air speeds, recognition of, and recovery from, incipient and full stalls;

(v) flight at critically high air speeds, recognition of, and recovery from, spiral dive;

(vi) normal and crosswind take-offs and landings;

(vii) maximum performance (short field and obstacle clearance) takeoffs, short-field landings;

(viii) light by reference solely to instruments, including the completion of a level 180 ° turn;

(ix) cross-country flying using visual reference, dead reckoning and radio navigation aids;

(x) emergency operations, including simulated aeroplane equipment malfunctions;

(xi) operations to, from and transiting controlled aerodromes, compliance with air traffic services procedures, communication procedures and phraseology.

(2) Before allowing applicants for a PPL(A) to undertake their first solo flight, the FI should ensure that the applicants can use R/T communication and can operate the required systems and equipment.

(c) Syllabus of flight instruction

(1) The numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide; therefore the demonstrations and practices need not necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and content will depend upon the following interrelated factors:

(i) the applicant’s progress and ability;

(ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight;

(iii) the flight time available;

(iv) instructional technique considerations;

(v) the local operating environment;

(vi) applicability of the exercises to the aeroplane.

(2) Each of the exercises involves the need for the applicant to be aware of the needs of good airmanship and look-out, which should be emphasised at all times.

(i) Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the aeroplane:

(A) characteristics of the aeroplane;

(B) cockpit layout;

(C) systems;

(D) checklists, drills and controls.

(ii) Exercise 1b: Emergency drills:

(A) action if fire on the ground and in the air;

(B) engine cabin and electrical system fire;

(C) systems failure;

(D) escape drills, location and use of emergency equipment and exits.

(iii) Exercise 2: Preparation for and action after flight:

(A) flight authorisation and aeroplane acceptance;

(B) serviceability documents;

(C) equipment required, maps, etc.;

(D) external checks;

(E) internal checks;

(F) harness, seat or rudder panel adjustments;

(G) starting and warm-up checks;

(H) power checks;

(I) running down system checks and switching off the engine;

(J) parking, security and picketing (for example tie down);

(K) completion of authorisation sheet and serviceability documents.

(iv) Exercise 3: Air experience: flight exercise.

(v) Exercise 4: Effects of controls:

(A) primary effects when laterally level and when banked;

(B) further effects of aileron and rudder;

(C) effects of:

(a) air speed;

(b) slipstream;

(c) power;

(d) trimming controls;

(e) flaps;

(f) other controls, as applicable.

(D) operation of:

(a) mixture control;

(b) carburettor heat;

(c) cabin heating or ventilation.

(vi) Exercise 5a: Taxiing:

(A) pre-taxi checks;

(B) starting, control of speed and stopping;

(C) engine handling;

(D) control of direction and turning;

(E) turning in confined spaces;

(F) parking area procedure and precautions;

(G) effects of wind and use of flying controls;

(H) effects of ground surface;

(I) freedom of rudder movement;

(J) marshalling signals;

(K) instrument checks;

(L) air traffic control procedures.

(vii) Exercise 5b: Emergencies: brake and steering failure.

(viii) Exercise 6: Straight and level:

(A) at normal cruising power, attaining and maintaining straight and level flight;

(B) flight at critically high air speeds;

(C) demonstration of inherent stability;

(D) control in pitch, including use of trim;

(E) lateral level, direction and balance and trim;

(F) at selected air speeds (use of power);

(G) during speed and configuration changes;

(H) use of instruments for precision.

(ix) Exercise 7: Climbing:

(A) entry, maintaining the normal and max rate climb and levelling off;

(B) levelling off at selected altitudes;

(C) en-route climb (cruise climb);

(D) climbing with flap down;

(E) recovery to normal climb;

(F) maximum angle of climb;

(G) use of instruments for precision.

(x) Exercise 8: Descending:

(A) entry, maintaining and levelling off;

(B) levelling off at selected altitudes;

(C) glide, powered and cruise descent (including effect of power and air speed);

(D) side slipping (on suitable types);

(E) use of instruments for precision flight.

(xi) Exercise 9: Turning:

(A) entry and maintaining medium level turns;

(B) resuming straight flight;

(C) faults in the turn (for example in correct pitch, bank and balance);

(D) climbing turns;

(E) descending turns;

(F) faults in the turns (slipping and skidding on suitable types);

(G) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading indicator and compass;

(H) use of instruments for precision.

(xii) Exercise 10a: Slow flight:

Note: the objective is to improve the student’s ability to recognise inadvertent flight at critically low speeds and provide practice in maintaining the aeroplane in balance while returning to normal air speed.

(A) safety checks;

(B) introduction to slow flight;

(C) controlled flight down to critically slow air speed;

(D) application of full power with correct attitude and balance to achieve normal climb speed.

(xiii) Exercise 10b: Stalling:

(A) safety checks;

(B) symptoms;

(C) recognition;

(D) clean stall and recovery without power and with power;

(E) recovery when a wing drops;

(F) approach to stall in the approach and in the landing configurations, with and without power and recovery at the incipient stage.

(xiv) Exercise 11: Spin avoidance:

(A) safety checks;

(B) stalling and recovery at the incipient spin stage (stall with excessive wing drop, about 45°);

(C) instructor induced distractions during the stall.

Note 1: at least two hours of stall awareness and spin avoidance flight training should be completed during the course.

Note 2: consideration of manoeuvre limitations and the need to refer to the aeroplane manual and mass and balance calculations.

(xv) Exercise 12: Take-off and climb to downwind position:

(A) pre-take-off checks;

(B) into wind take-off;

(C) safeguarding the nose wheel;

(D) crosswind take-off;

(E) drills during and after take-off;

(F) short take-off and soft field procedure/techniques including performance calculations;

(G) noise abatement procedures.

(xvi) Exercise 13: Circuit, approach and landing:

(A) circuit procedures, downwind and base leg;

(B) powered approach and landing;

(C) safeguarding the nose wheel;

(D) effect of wind on approach and touchdown speeds and use of flaps;

(E) crosswind approach and landing;

(F) glide approach and landing;

(G) short landing and soft field procedures or techniques;

(H) flapless approach and landing;

(I) wheel landing (tail wheel aeroplanes);

(J) missed approach and go-around;

(K) noise abatement procedures.

(xvii) Exercise 12/13: Emergencies:

(A) abandoned take-off;

(B) engine failure after take-off;

(C) mislanding and go-around;

(D) missed approach.

Note: in the interests of safety it will be necessary for pilots trained on nose wheel aeroplanes to undergo dual conversion training before flying tail wheel aeroplanes, and vice-versa.

(xviii) Exercise 14: First solo:

(A) instructor’s briefing, observation of flight and de-briefing;

Note: during flights immediately following the solo circuit consolidation the following should be revised:

(B) procedures for leaving and rejoining the circuit;

(C) the local area, restrictions, map reading;

(D) use of radio aids for homing;

(E)  urns using magnetic compass, compass errors.

(xix) Exercise 15: Advanced turning:

(A) steep turns (45°), level and descending;

(B) stalling in the turn and recovery;

(C) recoveries from unusual attitudes, including spiral dives.

(xx) Exercise 16: Forced landing without power:

(A) forced landing procedure;

(B) choice of landing area, provision for change of plan;

(C) gliding distance;

(D) descent plan;

(E) key positions;

(F) engine cooling;

(G) engine failure checks;

(H) use of radio;

(I) base leg;

(J) final approach;

(K) landing;

(L) actions after landing.

(xxi) Exercise 17: Precautionary landing:

(A) full procedure away from aerodrome to break-off height;

(B) occasions necessitating;

(C) in-flight conditions;

(D) landing area selection:

(a) normal aerodrome;

(b) disused aerodrome;

(c) ordinary field.

(E) circuit and approach;

(F) actions after landing.

(xxii) Exercise 18a: Navigation:

(A) flight planning:

(a) weather forecast and actuals;

(b) map selection and preparation:

(1) choice of route;

(2) controlled airspace;

(3) danger, prohibited and restricted areas;

(4) safety altitudes.

(c) calculations:

(1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route;

(2) fuel consumption;

(3) mass and balance;

(4) mass and performance.

(d) flight information:

(1) NOTAMs etc.;

(2) radio frequencies;

(3) selection of alternate aerodromes.

(e) aeroplane documentation;

(f) notification of the flight:

(1) pre-flight administrative procedures;

(2) flight plan form.

(B) departure:

(a) organisation of cockpit workload;

(b) departure procedures:

(1) altimeter settings;

(2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(3) setting heading procedure;

(4) noting of ETAs.

(c) maintenance of altitude and heading;

(d) revisions of ETA and heading;

(e) log keeping;

(f) use of radio;

(g) use of navaids;

(h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of flight;

(i) in-flight decisions;

(j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace;

(k) diversion procedures;

(l) uncertainty of position procedure;

(m) lost procedure.

(C) arrival and aerodrome joining procedure:

(a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(b) altimeter setting;

(c) entering the traffic pattern;

(d) circuit procedures;

(e) parking;

(f) security of aeroplane;

(g) refuelling;

(h) closing of flight plan, if appropriate;

(i) post-flight administrative procedures.

(xxiii) Exercise 18b: Navigation problems at lower levels and in reduced visibility:

(A) actions before descending;

(B) hazards (for example obstacles and terrain);

(C) difficulties of map reading;

(D) effects of wind and turbulence;

(E) vertical situational awareness (avoidance of controlled flight into terrain);

(F) avoidance of noise sensitive areas;

(G) joining the circuit;

(H) bad weather circuit and landing.

(xxiv) Exercise 18c: Radio navigation:

(A) use of GNSS:

(a) selection of waypoints;

(b) to or from indications and orientation;

(c) error messages.

(B) use of VHF omni range:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) selection and identification;

(c) OBS;

(d) to or from indications and orientation;

(e) CDI;

(f) determination of radial;

(g) intercepting and maintaining a radial;

(h) VOR passage;

(i) obtaining a fix from two VORs.

(C) use of ADF equipment: NDBs:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) selection and identification;

(c) orientation relative to the beacon;

(d) homing.

(D) use of VHF/DF:

(a) availability, AIP, frequencies;

(b) R/T procedures and ATC liaison;

(c) obtaining a QDM and homing.

(E) use of en-route or terminal radar:

(a) availability and AIP;

(b) procedures and ATC liaison;

(c) pilot’s responsibilities;

(d) secondary surveillance radar:

(1) transponders;

(2) code selection;

(3) interrogation and reply.

(F) use of DME:

(a) station selection and identification;

(b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to run.

(xxv) Exercise 19: Basic instrument flight:

(A) physiological sensations;

(B) instrument appreciation; attitude instrument flight;

(C) instrument limitations;

(D) basic manoeuvres:

(a) straight and level at various air speeds and configurations;

(b) climbing and descending;

(c) standard rate turns, climbing and descending, onto selected headings;

(d) recoveries from climbing and descending turns.

(d) BITD

(1) A BITD may be used for flight training for:

(i) flight by reference solely to instruments;

(ii) navigation using radio navigation aids;

(iii) basic instrument flight.

(2) The use of the BITD should be subject to the following:

(i) the training should be complemented by exercises on an aeroplane;

(ii) the record of the parameters of the flight must be available;

(iii) A FI(A) or STI(A) should conduct the instruction.

AMC2 FCL.210 PPL(H) – Training course

ED Decision 2020/005/R

FLIGHT INSTRUCTION FOR THE PPL(H)

(a) Entry to training

Before being accepted for training an applicant should be informed that the appropriate medical certificate must be obtained before solo flying is permitted.

(b) Ground instruction

Enhanced ground instruction in weather interpretation, planning and route assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing.

(c) Flight instruction

(1) The PPL(H) flight instruction syllabus should take into account the principles of threat and error management and cover:

(i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, helicopter inspection and servicing;

(ii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, collision avoidance precautions and procedures;

(iii) control of the helicopter by external visual reference;

(iv) take-offs, landings, hovering, look-out turns and normal transitions from and to the hover;

(v) emergency procedures, basic autorotations, simulated engine failure, ground resonance recovery if relevant to type;

(vi) sideways and backwards flight, turns on the spot;

(vii) incipient vortex ring recognition and recovery;

(viii) touchdown autorotations, simulated engine-off landings, practice forced landings. Simulated equipment malfunctions and emergency procedures relating to malfunctions of engines, controls, electrical and hydraulic circuits;

(ix) steep turns;

(x) transitions, quick stops, out of wind manoeuvres, sloping ground landings and take-offs;

(xi) limited power and confined area operations, including selection of and operations to and from unprepared sites;

(xii) flight by sole reference to basic flight instruments, including completion of a level 180° turn and recovery from unusual attitudes to simulate inadvertent entry into cloud (this training may be conducted by an FI(H));

(xiii) cross-country flying by using visual reference, DR, GNNS and, where available, radio navigation aids; simulation of deteriorating weather conditions and actions to divert or conduct precautionary landing;

(xiv) operations to, from and transiting controlled aerodromes; compliance with air traffic services procedures, communication procedures and phraseology.

(2) Before allowing applicants for a PPL(H) to undertake their first solo flight, the FI should ensure that the applicants can use R/T communication and can operate the required systems and equipment.

(3) Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this potentially fatal flight regime.

(d) Syllabus of flight instruction

(1) The numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide; therefore the demonstrations and practices need not necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and content will depend upon the following interrelated factors:

(i) the applicant’s progress and ability;

(ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight;

(iii) the flight time available;

(iv) instructional technique considerations;

(v) the local operating environment;

(vi) applicability of the exercises to the helicopter.

(2) Each of the exercises involves the need for the applicant to be aware of the needs of good airmanship and look-out, which should be emphasised at all times.

(i) Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the helicopter:

(A) characteristics of the helicopter, external features;

(B) cockpit layout;

(C) systems;

(D) checklists, procedures and controls.

(ii) Exercise 1b: Emergency procedures:

(A) action if fire on the ground and in the air;

(B) engine, cabin and electrical system fire;

(C) systems failures;

(D) escape drills, location and use of emergency equipment and exits.

(iii) Exercise 2: Preparation for and action after flight:

(A) flight authorisation and helicopter acceptance;

(B) serviceability documents;

(C) equipment required, maps, etc.;

(D) external checks;

(E) internal checks;

(F) seat, harness and flight controls adjustments;

(G) starting and warm-up checks clutch engagement and starting rotors;

(H) power checks;

(I) running down system checks and switching off the engine;

(J) parking, security and picketing;

(K) completion of authorisation sheet and serviceability documents.

(iv) Exercise 3: Air experience:

(A) to introduce the student to rotary wing flight;

(B) flight exercise.

(v) Exercise 4: Effects of controls:

(A) function of flight controls, primary and secondary effect;

(B) effects of: 

(a) air speed;

(b) power changes (torque);

(c) yaw (sideslip);

(d) disc loading (bank and flare);

(e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off

(f) control friction.

(C) instruments;

(D) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control.

(vi) Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes:

(A) relationship between cyclic control position, disc attitude, fuselage attitude and air speed;

(B) flapback;

(C) power required diagram in relation to air speed;

(D) power and air speed changes in level flight;

(E) use of instruments for precision;

(F) engine and air speed limitations.

(vii) Exercise 6: Straight and level: 

(A) at normal cruising power, attaining and maintaining straight and level flight;

(B) control in pitch, including use of control friction or trim;

(C) maintaining direction and balance, (ball or yawstring use);

(D) setting power for selected air speeds and speed changes;

(E) use of instruments for precision.

(viii) Exercise 7: Climbing:

(A) optimum climb speed, best angle or rate of climb from power required diagram;

(B) initiation, maintaining the normal and maximum rate of climb, levelling off;

(C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights

(D) use of instruments for precision.

(ix) Exercise 8: Descending:

(A) optimum descent speed, best angle or rate of descent from power required diagram;

(B) initiation, maintaining and levelling off;

(C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights;

(D) descent (including effect of power and air speed);

(E) use of instruments for precision.

(x) Exercise 9: Turning:

(A) initiation and maintaining medium level turns;

(B) resuming straight flight;

(C) altitude, bank and co-ordination;

(D) climbing and descending turns and effect on rate of climb or descent;

(E) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading indicator and compass;

(F) use of instruments for precision.

(xi) Exercise 10: Basic autorotation: 

(A) safety checks, verbal warning and look-out;

(B) entry, development and characteristics;

(C) control of air speed and RRPM, rotor and engine limitations;

(D) effect of AUM, IAS, disc loading, G forces and density altitude;

(E) re-engagement and go-around procedures (throttle over-ride or ERPM control);

(F) vortex condition during recovery;

(G) gentle and medium turns in autorotation;

(H) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off landing.

(xii) Exercise 11a: Hovering:

(A) demonstrate hover IGE, importance of wind effect and attitude, ground cushion, stability in the hover and effects of over controlling;

(B) student holding cyclic stick only;

(C) student handling collective lever (and throttle) only;

(D) student handling collective lever, (throttle) and pedals;

(E) student handling all controls;

(F) demonstration of ground effect;

(G) demonstration of wind effect;

(H) demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown;

(I) specific hazards for example snow, dust and litter.

(xiii) Exercise 11b: Hover taxiing and spot turns:

(A) revise hovering;

(B) precise ground speed and height control;

(C) effect of wind direction on helicopter attitude and control margin;

(D) control and co-ordination during spot turns;

(E) carefully introduce gentle forward running touchdown.

(xiv) Exercise 11c: Hovering and taxiing emergencies:

(A) revise hovering and gentle forward running touchdown, explain (demonstrate where applicable) effect of hydraulics failure in the hover;

(B) demonstrate simulated engine failure in the hover and hover taxi;

(C) demonstrate dangers of mishandling and over-pitching.

(xv) Exercise 12: Take-off and landing:

(A) pre-take-off checks or drills;

(B) look-out;

(C) lifting to hover;

(D) after take-off checks;

(E) danger of horizontal movement near ground;

(F) danger of mishandling and overpitching;

(G) landing (without sideways or backwards movement);

(H) after landing checks or drills;

(I) take-off and landing crosswind and downwind.

(xvi) Exercise 13: Transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover:

(A) look-out;

(B) revise take-off and landing;

(C) ground effect, translational lift and its effects;

(D) flapback and its effects;

(E) effect of wind speed and direction during transitions from or to the hover;

(F) the constant angle approach;

(G) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off landing.

(xvii) Exercise 14a: Circuit, approach and landing:

(A) revise transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover;

(B) circuit procedures, downwind and base leg;

(C) approach and landing with power; 

(D) pre-landing checks;

(E) effect of wind on approach and IGE hover;

(F) crosswind approach and landing;

(G) go-around;

(H) noise abatement procedures.

(xviii) Exercise 14b: Steep and limited power approaches and landings: 

(A) revise the constant angle approach;

(B) the steep approach (explain danger of high sink rate and low air speed)

(C) limited power approach (explain danger of high speed at touch down);

(D) use of the ground effect;

(E) variable flare simulated engine off landing.

(xix) Exercise 14c: Emergency procedures:

(A) abandoned take-off;

(B) missed approach and go-around;

(C) hydraulic off landing (if applicable);

(D) tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing only)

(E) simulated emergencies in the circuit to include:

(a) hydraulics failure;

(b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind, downwind and base leg;

(c) governor failure.

(xx) Exercise 15: First solo: 

(A) instructor’s briefing, observation of flight and debriefing;

(B) warn of change of attitude from reduced and laterally displaced weight;

(C) warn of low tail, low skid or wheel during hover, landing;

(D) warn of dangers of loss of RRPM and overpitching;

(E) pre-take-off checks;

(F) into wind take-off;

(G) procedures during and after take-off;

(H) normal circuit, approaches and landings;

(I) action if an emergency.

(xxi) Exercise 16: Sideways and backwards hover manoeuvring: 

(A) manoeuvring sideways flight heading into wind;

(B) manoeuvring backwards flight heading into wind;

(C) combination of sideways and backwards manoeuvring;

(D) manoeuvring sideways and backwards and heading out of wind;

(E) stability and weather cocking;

(F) recovery from backwards manoeuvring (pitch nose down);

(G)  limitations for sideways and backwards manoeuvring.

(xxii) Exercise 17: Spot turns:

(A) revise hovering into wind and downwind;

(B) turn on spot through 360°:

(a) around pilots position;

(b) around tail rotor;

(c) around helicopter geometric centre;

(d) square and safe visibility clearing turn.

(C) rotor RPM control, torque effect, cyclic limiting stops due to CG position and wind speed and direction.

(xxiii) Exercise 18: Hover OGE and vortex ring:

(A) establishing hover OGE;

(B) drift, height or power control;

(C) demonstration of incipient stage of vortex ring, recognition and recovery (from a safe altitude);

(D) loss of tail rotor effectiveness. 

(xxiv) Exercise 19: Simulated EOL:

(A) the effect of weight, disc loading, density attitude and RRPM decay;

(B) revise basic autorotation entry;

(C) optimum use of cyclic and collective to control speed or RRPM;

(D) variable flare simulated EOL;

(E) demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL;

(F) demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover taxi;

(G) demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and low level.

(xxv) Exercise 20: Advanced autorotation:

(A) over a selected point at various height and speed;

(B) revise basic autorotation: note ground distance covered;

(C) range autorotation;

(D) low speed autorotation;

(E) constant attitude autorotation (terminate at safe altitude);

(F) ‘S’ turns;

(G) turns through 180° and 360°;

(H) effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect of AUM.

(xxvi) Exercise 21: Practice forced landings:

(A) procedure and choice of the forced landing area;

(B) forced landing checks and crash action;

(C) re-engagement and go-around procedures.

(xxvii) Exercise 22: Steep turns:

(A) steep (level) turns (30° bank);

(B) maximum rate turns (45° bank if possible);

(C) steep autorotative turns;

(D) faults in the turn: balance, attitude, bank and co-ordination;

(E) RRPM control and disc loading;

(F) vibration and control feedback;

(G) effect of wind at low level.

(xxviii) Exercise 23: Transitions: 

(A) revise ground effect, translational lift and flapback;

(B) maintaining constant height, (20-30 ft AGL);

(C) transition from hover to minimum 50 knots IAS and back to hover;

(D) demonstrate effect of wind.

(xxix) Exercise 24: Quick stops: 

(A) use of power and controls;

(B) effect of wind;

(C) quick stops into wind;

(D) quick stops from crosswind and downwind terminating into wind;

(E)  danger of vortex ring;

(F)  danger of high disc loading.

(xxx) Exercise 25a: Navigation: 

(A) flight planning: 

(a) weather forecast and actuals;

(b) map selection and preparation and use;

(1) choice of route: 

(2) controlled airspace, danger and prohibited areas;

(3) safety altitudes and noise abatement considerations.

(c) calculations:

(1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route;

(2) fuel consumption;

(3) mass and balance.

(d) flight information:

(1) NOTAMs, etc.;

(2) radio frequencies;

(e) helicopter documentation;

(f) notification of the flight:

(1) pre-flight administrative procedures;

(2) flight plan form (where appropriate).

(B) departure: 

(a) organisation of cockpit workload;

(b) departure procedures:

(1) altimeter settings;

(2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(3) setting heading procedure;

(4) noting of ETAs.

(c) maintenance of height or altitude and heading;

(d) revisions of ETA and heading:

(1) 10° line, double track and track error and closing angle;

(2) 1 in 60 rule;

(3) amending an ETA.

(e) log keeping;

(f) use of radio;

(g) use of navaids (if fitted);

(h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of flight;

(i) in-flight decisions;

(j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace;

(k) uncertainty of position procedure;

(l) lost procedure.

(C) arrival and aerodrome joining procedure: 

(a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(b) altimeter setting;

(c) entering the traffic pattern;

(d) circuit procedures.

(e) parking;

(f) security of helicopter;

(g) refuelling;

(h) closing of flight plan (if appropriate);

(i) post-flight administrative procedures.

(xxxi) Exercise 25b: Navigation problems at low heights and in reduced visibility:

(A) actions before descending;

(B) hazards (for example obstacles and other aircraft);

(C) difficulties of map reading;

(D) effects of wind and turbulence;

(E) avoidance of noise sensitive areas;

(F) actions in the event of encountering DVE;

(G) decision to divert or conduct precautionary landing;

(H) bad weather circuit and landing;

(I) appropriate procedures and choice of landing area;

(J) precautionary landing.

(xxxii) Exercise 25c: Radio navigation:

(A) use of GNSS: 

(a) selection of waypoints;

(b) to or from indications and orientation;

(c) error messages;

(d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in the continuation of flight in DVE.

(B) use of VHF omni range: 

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) selection and identification;

(c) OBS;

(d) to or from indications and orientation;

(e) CDI;

(f) determination of radial;

(g) intercepting and maintaining a radial;

(h) VOR passage;

(i) obtaining a fix from two VORs.

(C) use of ADF equipment: NDBs:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) selection and identification;

(c) orientation relative to the beacon;

(d) homing.

(D) use of VHF/DF: 

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) RTF procedures and ATC liaison;

(c) obtaining a QDM and homing.

(E) use of en-route or terminal radar:

(a) availability and AIP;

(b) procedures and ATC liaison;

(c) pilots responsibilities;

(d) secondary surveillance radar (if transponder fitted):

(1) transponders;

(2) code selection;

(3) interrogation and reply.

(F) use of DME:

(a) station selection and identification;

(b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to run.

(xxxiii) Exercise 26: Advanced take-off, landings and transitions:

(A) landing and take-off out of wind (performance reduction);

(B) ground effect, translational lift and directional stability variation when out of wind;

(C) downwind transitions;

(D) vertical take-off over obstacles;

(E) running take-off;

(F) cushion creep take-off;

(G) reconnaissance of landing site; 

(H) running landing;

(I) zero speed landing;

(J) crosswind and downwind landings;

(K) steep approach; 

(L) go-around.

(xxxiv) Exercise 27: Sloping ground:

(A) limitations and assessing slope angle;

(B) wind and slope relationship: blade and control stops;

(C) effect of CG when on slope;

(D) ground effect on slope and power required;

(E) right skid up slope;

(F) left skid up slope;

(G) nose up slope;

(H) avoidance of dynamic roll over, dangers of soft ground and sideways movement on touchdown;

(I) danger of striking main or tail rotor by harsh control movement near ground.

(xxxv) Exercise 28: Limited power:

(A) take-off power check;

(B) vertical take-off over obstacles;

(C) in-flight power check;

(D) running landing;

(E) zero speed landing;

(F) approach to low hover;

(G) approach to hover;

(H) approach to hover OGE;

(I) steep approach;

(J) go-around.

(xxxvi) Exercise 29: Confined areas:

(A) landing capability and performance assessment;

(B) locating landing site and assessing wind speed and direction;

(C) reconnaissance of landing site;

(D) select markers;

(E) select direction and type of approach;

(F) circuit;

(G) approach to committed point and go-around;

(H) approach;

(I) clearing turn;

(J) landing;

(K) power check and performance assessment in and out of ground effect;

(L) normal take-off to best angle of climb speed;

(M) vertical take-off from hover.

(xxxvii) Exercise 30: Basic instrument flight:

(A) physiological sensations;

(B) instrument appreciation:

(a) attitude instrument flight;

(b) instrument scan.

(C) instrument limitations;

(D) basic manoeuvres:

(a) straight and level at various air speeds and configurations;

(b) climbing and descending;

(c) standard rate turns, climbing and descending, onto selected headings.

(E) recoveries from climbing and descending turns;

(F)  recoveries from unusual attitudes.

AMC1 FCL.210(c) Training course

ED Decision 2018/009/R

CHANGE OF TRAINING ORGANISATION

In cases where the applicant completes the training course (theoretical knowledge instruction or flight instruction) at a different DTO or ATO (‘completing training organisation’) from the one where they have started the training course (‘starting training organisation’), the applicant should request from the starting training organisation a copy of the records kept in accordance with point DTO.GEN.220 or point ORA.ATO.120

FCL.215 Theoretical knowledge examination

Regulation (EU) 2020/359

Applicants for a PPL shall demonstrate a level of theoretical knowledge appropriate to the privileges granted through examinations in the following subjects:

(a) common subjects:

             Air law,

             Human performance,

             Meteorology,

             Communications, and

             Navigation.

(b) specific subjects concerning the different aircraft categories:

             Principles of flight,

             Operational procedures,

             Flight performance and planning, and

             Aircraft general knowledge.

AMC1 FCL.210; FCL.215 Training course and theoretical knowledge examination

ED Decision 2020/005/R

SYLLABUS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PPL(A) AND PPL(H)

The following tables contain the syllabi for the courses of theoretical knowledge, as well as for the theoretical knowledge examinations for the PPL(A) and PPL(H). The training and examination should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in an integrated manner, taking into account the particular risks associated to the licence and the activity.

The DTO or the ATO responsible for the training should check if all the appropriate elements of the training course of theoretical knowledge instruction have been completed to a satisfactory standard before recommending the applicant for the examination.

The applicable items for each licence are marked with ‘x’. An ‘x’ on the main title of a subject means that all the sub-divisions are applicable.

 

 

 

 

Aeroplane

Helicopter

PPL

Bridge course

PPL

Bridge course

1.

AIR LAW AND ATC PROCEDURES

 

 

 

 

 

International law: conventions, agreements and organisations

 

 

 

 

 

The Convention on international civil aviation (Chicago)  Doc. 7300/6

 

 

 

 

 

Part I  Air Navigation: relevant parts of the following chapters:

(a)  general principles and application of the convention;

(b)  flight over territory of Contracting States;

(c)  nationality of aircraft;

(d)  measures to facilitate air navigation;
(e)  conditions to be fulfilled on aircraft;

(f)  international standards and recommended practices; 

(g)  validity of endorsed certificates and licences;

(h)  notification of differences.

x

 

x

 

 

Part II  The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO): objectives and composition

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 8: Airworthiness of aircraft

 

 

 

 

 

Foreword and definitions 

x

 

x

 

 

Certificate of airworthiness

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 7: Aircraft nationality and registration marks 

 

 

 

 

 

Foreword and definitions

x

 

x

 

 

Common- and registration marks

x

 

x

 

 

Certificate of registration and aircraft nationality

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 1: Personnel licensing

 

 

 

 

 

Definitions

x

 

x

 

 

Relevant parts of Annex 1 connected to Part-FCL and Part-Medical

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 2: Rules of the air 

 

 

 

 

 

Essential definitions, applicability of the rules of the air, general rules (except water operations), visual flight rules, signals and interception of civil aircraft

x

 

x

 

 

Procedures for air navigation: aircraft operations doc. 8168-ops/611, volume 1

 

 

 

 

 

Altimeter setting procedures (including

IACO doc. 7030 – regional supplementary procedures)

 

 

 

 

 

Basic requirements (except tables),

procedures applicable to operators and pilots (except tables)

x

 

x

 

 

Secondary surveillance radar transponder operating procedures (including ICAO Doc. 7030 – regional supplementary procedures)

 

 

 

 

 

Operation of transponders

x

 

x

 

 

Phraseology

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 11: Doc. 4444 air traffic management 

 

 

 

 

 

Definitions

x

 

x

 

 

General provisions for air traffic services

x

 

x

 

 

Visual separation in the vicinity of aerodromes

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Procedures for aerodrome control services

x

 

x

 

Radar services

x

 

x

 

Flight information service and alerting service

x

 

x

 

Phraseologies

x

 

x

 

Procedures related to emergencies, communication failure and contingencies

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 15: Aeronautical information service 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction, essential definitions

x

 

x

 

 

AIP, NOTAM, AIRAC and AIC

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 14, volume 1 and 2: Aerodromes

 

 

 

 

 

Definitions

x

 

x

 

 

Aerodrome data: conditions of the movement area and related facilities

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Visual aids for navigation:

(a) indicators and signalling devices;

(b) markings;

(c)  lights;

(d) signs;

(e) markers.

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Visual aids for denoting obstacles:

(a)  marking of objects;

(b)  lighting of objects.

x

 

x

 

 

Visual aids for denoting restricted use of areas

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Emergency and other services:

(a) rescue and fire fighting;

(b) apron management service.

x

 

 

  

x

 

  

 

Annex 12: Search and rescue

 

 

 

 

 

Essential definitions

x

 

x

 

 

Operating procedures:

(a) procedures for PIC at the scene of an accident;

(b) procedures for PIC intercepting a distress transmission;

(c) search and rescue signals.

x

 

 

 

 

 

Search and rescue signals:

(a)  signals with surface craft;

(b)  ground or air visual signal code;

(c)  air or ground signals.

x

 

x

 

 

 

Annex 17: Security 

 

 

 

 

 

General: aims and objectives

x

 

x

 

 

Annex 13: Aircraft accident investigation

 

 

 

 

 

Essential definitions

x

 

x

 

 

Applicability

x

 

x

 

 

National law

 

 

 

 

 

National law and differences to relevant

ICAO Annexes and relevant EU regulations.

x

 

x

 

2.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE

 

 

 

 

 

Human factors: basic concepts

 

 

 

 

 

Human factors in aviation

 

 

 

 

 

Becoming a competent pilot

x

 

x

 

 

Basic aviation physiology and health maintenance

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The atmosphere:

(a)  composition;

(b)  gas laws.

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Respiratory and circulatory systems: 

(a) oxygen requirement of tissues;

(b) functional anatomy;

(c) main forms of hypoxia (hypoxic and anaemic):

(1) sources, effects and countermeasures of carbon monoxide;

(2) counter measures and hypoxia;

(3) symptoms of hypoxia.

(d) hyperventilation;

(e) the effects of accelerations on the circulatory system;

(f) hypertension and coronary heart disease.

x

 

x

 

 

 

Man and environment

 

 

 

 

 

Central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vision:

(a) functional anatomy;

(b) visual field, foveal and peripheral vision;

(c) binocular and monocular vision;

(d) monocular vision cues;

(e) night vision;

(f) visual scanning and detection techniques and importance of ‘look-out’;

(g) defective vision.

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Hearing:

(a) descriptive and functional anatomy;

(b) flight related hazards to hearing;

(c)  hearing loss.

x

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Equilibrium:

(a)  functional anatomy;

(b)  motion and acceleration;

(c)  motion sickness.

x

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

  

 

 

 

Integration of sensory inputs:

(a)  spatial disorientation: forms, recognition and avoidance;

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(b) illusions: forms, recognition and avoidance: 

(1) physical origin;

(2) physiological origin;

(3) psychological origin.

(c) approach and landing problems.

 

 

 

 

 

Health and hygiene

 

 

 

 

 

Personal hygiene: personal fitness 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Body rhythm and sleep:

(a) rhythm disturbances;

(b) symptoms, effects and management.

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Problem areas for pilots: 

(a) common minor ailments including cold, influenza and gastro-intestinal upset;

(b) entrapped gases and barotrauma, (scuba diving);

(c) obesity;

(d) food hygiene; 

(e) infectious diseases;

(f) nutrition;

(g) various toxic gases and materials.

x

 

 

 

  

 

 

    

x

 

 

    

 

 

 

  

 

 

Intoxication: 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

(a) prescribed medication;

(b) tobacco;

(c) alcohol and drugs;

(d) caffeine;

(e) self-medication.

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

Basic aviation psychology

 

 

 

 

 

Human information processing

 

 

 

 

 

 

Attention and vigilance:

(a)  selectivity of attention;

(b)  divided attention.

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Perception:

(A)  perceptual illusions;

(B)  subjectivity of perception;

(C)  processes of perception.

x

  

  

 

x

 

   

 

 

 

 

Memory:

(a) sensory memory;

(b) working or short term memory;

(c) long term memory to include motor memory (skills).

x

  

 

 

x

 

 

   

 

Human error and reliability

 

 

 

 

 

Reliability of human behaviour

x

 

x

 

 

Error generation: social environment (group, organisation)

x

 

x

 

 

Decision making

 

 

 

 

 

Decision-making concepts:

x

 

x

 

 

(a)  structure (phases);

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(b) limits;

(c) risk assessment;

(d) practical application.

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

Avoiding and managing errors: cockpit management

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Safety awareness: 

(a) risk area awareness;

(b) situational awareness.

x

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Communication: verbal and non-verbal communication

x

 

x

 

 

Human behaviour

 

 

 

 

 

 

Personality and attitudes: 

(a)  development;

(b) environmental influences.

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

Identification of hazardous attitudes (error proneness)

x

 

x

 

 

Human overload and underload

 

 

 

 

 

Arousal

x

 

x

 

 

 

Stress: 

(a)  definition(s);

(b)  anxiety and stress;

(c)  effects of stress.

x

 

  

 

x

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fatigue and stress management:

(a) types, causes and symptoms of fatigue;

(b) effects of fatigue;

(c)  coping strategies;

(d) management techniques;

(e) health and fitness programmes;

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

3.

METEOROLOGY

 

 

 

 

 

The atmosphere

 

 

 

 

 

Composition, extent and vertical division

 

 

 

 

 

 

Structure of the atmosphere

Troposphere

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

 

Air temperature

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Definition and units

Vertical distribution of temperature

Transfer of heat

Lapse rates, stability and instability

Development of inversions and types of inversions

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

 

Temperature near the earth’s surface, surface effects, diurnal and seasonal variation, effect of clouds and effect of wind

x

 

x

 

 

Atmospheric pressure

 

 

 

 

 

Barometric pressure and isobars

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Pressure variation with height

Reduction of pressure to mean sea level 

Relationship between surface pressure centres and pressure centres aloft

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

 

Air density

 

 

 

 

 

Relationship between pressure, temperature and density

x

 

x

 

 

ISA

 

 

 

 

 

ICAO standard atmosphere

x

 

x

 

 

Altimetry

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Terminology and definitions

Altimeter and altimeter settings

Calculations

Effect of accelerated airflow due to topography

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

 

Wind

 

 

 

 

 

Definition and measurement of wind

 

 

 

 

 

Definition and measurement

x

 

x

 

 

Primary cause of wind

 

 

 

 

 

Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient, coriolis force and gradient wind

x

 

x

 

 

 

Variation of wind in the friction layer

Effects of convergence and divergence 

x

 

x

 

x

 

x

 

 

General global circulation

 

 

 

 

 

General circulation around the globe

x

 

x

 

 

Local winds

 

 

 

 

 

Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds, Venturi effects, land and sea breezes

x

 

x

 

 

Mountain waves (standing waves, lee waves)

 

 

 

 

 

Origin and characteristics

x

 

x

 

 

Turbulence

 

 

 

 

 

Description and types of turbulence

x

 

x

 

 

Formation and location of turbulence

x

 

x

 

 

THERMODYNAMICS

 

 

 

 

 

Humidity

 

 

 

 

 

Water vapour in the atmosphere

x

 

x

 

 

Mixing ratio

x

 

x

 

 

Temperature/dew point, relative humidity

x

 

x

 

 

Change of state of aggregation

 

 

 

 

 

Condensation, evaporation, sublimation, freezing and melting, latent heat

x

 

x

 

 

Adiabatic processes

 

 

 

 

 

Adiabatic processes, stability of the atmosphere

x

 

x

 

 

CLOUDS AND FOG

 

 

 

 

 

Cloud formation and description

 

 

 

 

 

Cooling by adiabatic expansion and by advection

x

 

x

 

 

Cloud types and cloud classification

x

 

x

 

 

Influence of inversions on cloud development

x

 

x

 

 

Fog, mist, haze

 

 

 

 

 

General aspects

x

 

x

 

 

Radiation fog

x

 

x

 

 

Advection fog

x

 

x

 

 

Steaming fog

x

 

x

 

 

Frontal fog

x

 

x

 

 

Orographic fog (hill fog)

x

 

x

 

 

PRECIPITATION

 

 

 

 

 

Development of precipitation

 

 

 

 

 

Processes of development of precipitation

x

 

x

 

 

Types of precipitation

 

 

 

 

 

Types of precipitation, relationship with cloud types

x

 

x

 

 

AIR MASSES AND FRONTS

 

 

 

 

 

Air masses

 

 

 

 

 

Description, classification and source regions of air masses

x

 

x

 

 

Modifications of air masses

x

 

x

 

 

Fronts

 

 

 

 

 

General aspects

x

 

x

 

 

Warm front, associated clouds, and weather

x

 

x

 

 

Cold front, associated clouds, and weather

x

 

x

 

 

Warm sector, associated clouds, and weather

x

 

x

 

 

Weather behind the cold front

x

 

x

 

 

Occlusions, associated clouds, and weather

x

 

x

 

 

Stationary front, associated clouds, and weather

x

 

x

 

 

Movement of fronts and pressure systems, life cycle

x

 

x

 

 

Changes of meteorological elements at a frontal wave

x

 

x

 

 

PRESSURE SYSTEMS

 

 

 

 

 

Anticyclone

 

 

 

 

 

Anticyclones, types, general properties, cold and warm anticyclones, ridges and wedges, subsidence

x

 

x

 

 

Non-frontal depressions

 

 

 

 

 

Thermal, orographic and polar depressions, troughs

x

 

x

 

 

CLIMATOLOGY

 

 

 

 

 

Climatic zones

 

 

 

 

 

General seasonal circulation in the troposphere

x

 

x

 

 

Typical weather situations in the mid-latitudes

 

 

 

 

 

Westerly situation

x

 

x

 

 

High-pressure area

x

 

x

 

 

Flat-pressure pattern

x

 

x

 

 

Local winds and associated weather

 

 

 

 

 

e.g. Foehn

x

 

x

 

 

FLIGHT HAZARDS

 

 

 

 

 

Icing

 

 

 

 

 

Conditions for ice accretion

x

 

x

 

 

Types of ice accretion

x

 

x

 

 

Hazards of ice accretion, avoidance

x

 

x

 

 

Turbulence

 

 

 

 

 

Effects on flight, avoidance

x

 

x

 

 

Wind shear

 

 

 

 

 

Definition of wind shear

x

 

x

 

 

Weather conditions for wind shear

x

 

x

 

 

Effects on flight, avoidance

x

 

x

 

 

Thunderstorms

 

 

 

 

 

Conditions for, and process of, development, forecast, location, type specification

x

 

x

 

 

Structure of thunderstorms, life cycle, squall lines, electricity in the atmosphere, static charges

x

 

x

 

 

Electrical discharges

 

 

 

 

 

Development and effects of downbursts

x

 

x

 

 

Thunderstorm avoidance

x

 

x

 

 

Inversions

 

 

 

 

 

Influence on aircraft performance

x

 

x

 

 

Hazards in mountainous areas

 

 

 

 

 

Influence of terrain on clouds and precipitation, frontal passage

x

 

x

 

 

Vertical movements, mountain waves, wind shear, turbulence, ice accretion

x

 

x

 

 

Development and effect of valley inversions

x

 

x

 

 

Visibility-reducing phenomena

 

 

 

 

 

Reduction of visibility caused by precipitation and obscuration

x

 

x

 

 

Reduction of visibility caused by other phenomena

x

 

x

 

 

METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

 

 

 

 

 

Observation

 

 

 

 

 

Surface observations

x

 

x

 

 

Radiosonde observations

x

 

x

 

 

Satellite observations

x

 

x

 

 

Weather radar observations

x

 

x

 

 

Aircraft observations and reporting

x

 

x

 

 

Weather charts

 

 

 

 

 

Significant weather charts

x

 

x

 

 

Surface charts

x

 

x

 

 

Information for flight planning

 

 

 

 

 

Aviation weather messages

x

 

x

 

 

Meteorological broadcasts for aviation

x

 

x

 

 

Use of meteorological documents

x

 

x

 

 

Meteorological warnings

x

 

x

 

 

Meteorological services

 

 

 

 

 

World area forecast system (WAFS) and meteorological offices

x

 

x

 

4.

COMMUNICATIONS

 

 

 

 

 

VFR COMMUNICATIONS

 

 

 

 

 

Definitions

 

 

 

 

 

Meanings and significance of associated terms 

x

 

x

 

 

ATS abbreviations

x

 

x

 

 

Q-code groups commonly used in RTF airground communications

x

 

x

 

 

Categories of messages

x

 

x

 

 

General operating procedures

 

 

 

 

 

Transmission of letters

x

 

x

 

 

Transmission of numbers (including level information)

x

 

x

 

 

Transmission of time

x

 

x

 

 

Transmission technique

x

 

x

 

 

Standard words and phrases (relevant RTF phraseology included)

x

 

x

 

 

R/T call signs for aeronautical stations including use of abbreviated call signs

x

 

x

 

 

R/T call signs for aircraft including use of abbreviated call signs

x

 

x

 

 

Transfer of communication

x

 

x

 

 

Test procedures including readability scale

x

 

x

 

 

Read back and acknowledgement requirements

x

 

x

 

 

Relevant weather information terms (VFR)

 

 

 

 

 

Aerodrome weather

x

 

x

 

 

Weather broadcast

x

 

x

 

 

Action required to be taken in case of communication failure

x

 

x

 

 

Distress and urgency procedures

 

 

 

 

 

Distress (definition, frequencies, watch of distress frequencies, distress signal and distress message)

x

 

x

 

 

Urgency (definition, frequencies, urgency signal and urgency message)

x

 

x

 

 

General principles of VHF propagation and allocation of frequencies

x

 

x

 

5.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

 

 

 

 

5.1.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: AEROPLANE

 

 

 

 

 

Subsonic aerodynamics

 

 

 

 

 

Basics concepts, laws and definitions

 

 

 

 

 

Laws and definitions:

x

x

 

 

 

(a) conversion of units;

(b) Newton´s laws;

(c) Bernoulli’s equation and venture;

(d) static pressure, dynamic pressure and total pressure;

(e)  density;

(f) IAS and TAS. 

 

 

 

 

 

Basics about airflow:

(a) streamline;

(b) two-dimensional airflow;

(c) three-dimensional airflow.

x

x

 

 

 

Aerodynamic forces on surfaces:

(a) resulting airforce;

(b) lift;

(c) drag;

(d) angle of attack.

x

x

 

 

 

Shape of an aerofoil section:

(a) thickness to chord ratio;

(b) chord line;

(c) camber line;

(d) camber;

(e) angle of attack.

x

x

 

 

 

The wing shape:

(a)  aspect ratio;

(b) root chord;

(c) tip chord;

(d) tapered wings;

(e)  wing planform.

x

x

 

 

 

The two-dimensional airflow about an aerofoil

 

 

 

 

 

Streamline pattern

x

x

 

 

 

Stagnation point

x

x

 

 

 

Pressure distribution

x

x

 

 

 

Centre of pressure

x

x

 

 

 

Influence of angle of attack

x

x

 

 

 

Flow separation at high angles of attack

x

x

 

 

 

The lift – α graph

x

x

 

 

 

The coefficients

 

 

 

 

 

The lift coefficient Cl: the lift formula

x

x

 

 

 

The drag coefficient Cd: the drag formula

x

x

 

 

 

The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage

 

 

 

 

 

Streamline pattern:

(a) span-wise flow and causes;

(b) tip vortices and angle of attack;

(c) upwash and downwash due to tip vortices;

(d) wake turbulence behind an aeroplane (causes, distribution and duration of the phenomenon).

x

x

 

 

 

Induced drag:

(a) influence of tip vortices on the angle of attack;

(b) the induced local α;

(c) influence of induced angle of attack on the direction of the lift vector;

(d)  induced drag and angle of attack.

x

x

 

 

 

Drag 

 

 

 

 

 

The parasite drag:

(a)  pressure drag;
(b)  interference drag;

(c)  friction drag.

x

x

 

 

 

The parasite drag and speed

x

x

 

 

 

The induced drag and speed

x

x

 

 

 

The total drag

x

x

 

 

 

The ground effect

 

 

 

 

 

Effect on take off and landing characteristics of an aeroplane

x

x

 

 

 

The stall

 

 

 

 

 

Flow separation at increasing angles of attack:

(a) the boundary layer:

(1)  laminar layer;
(2)  turbulent layer;

(3)  transition.

(b) separation point;

(c)  influence of angle of attack;
(d)  influence on:

(1) pressure distribution;

(2) location of centre of pressure;

(3) CL;

(4) CD;

(5) pitch moments.

(e)  buffet;

(f) use of controls.

x

x

 

 

 

The stall speed:

(a)  in the lift formula;

(b)  1g stall speed;

(c)  influence of:

(1) the centre of gravity;

(2) power setting;

(3) altitude (IAS);

(4) wing loading;

(5)  load factor n:

(i)  definition;

(ii)  turns;

(iii)  forces.

x

x

 

 

 

The initial stall in span-wise direction:

(a)  influence of planform;

(b)  geometric twist (wash out);

(c)  use of ailerons.

x

x

 

 

 

Stall warning:

(a) importance of stall warning;

(b)  speed margin;

(c)  buffet;

(d)  stall strip; 

(e)  flapper switch;

(f)  recovery from stall.

x

x

 

 

 

Special phenomena of stall:

(a) the power-on stall;

(b)  climbing and descending turns;
(c)  t-tailed aeroplane;
(d)  avoidance of spins:

(1)  spin development;
(2)  spin recognition;

(3)  spin recovery.

(e)  ice (in stagnation point and on surface):

(1) absence of stall warning;

(2) abnormal behaviour of the aircraft during stall.

x

x

 

 

 

CL augmentation

 

 

 

 

 

Trailing edge flaps and the reasons for use in take-off and landing:

(a)  influence on CL - α-graph;

(b)  different types of flaps;

(c)  flap asymmetry;

(d)  influence on pitch movement.

x

x

 

 

 

Leading edge devices and the reasons for use in take-off and landing

x

x

 

 

 

The boundary layer

 

 

 

 

 

Different types:

(a) laminar;

(b)  turbulent.

x

x

 

 

 

Special circumstances

 

 

 

 

 

Ice and other contamination: 

(a) ice in stagnation point;

(b) ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice);

(c) rain;

(d) contamination of the leading edge;

(e) effects on stall;

(f) effects on loss of controllability;

(g) effects on control surface moment;

(h) influence on high lift devices during takeoff, landing and low speeds.

x

x

 

 

 

Stability

 

 

 

 

 

Condition of equilibrium in steady horizontal flight

 

 

 

 

 

Precondition for static stability

x

x

 

 

 

Equilibrium: 

(a) lift and weight;

(b) drag and thrust.

x

x

 

 

 

Methods of achieving balance

 

 

 

 

 

Wing and empennage (tail and canard)

x

x

 

 

 

Control surfaces

x

x

 

 

 

Ballast or weight trim

x

x

 

 

 

Static and dynamic longitudinal stability

 

 

 

 

 

Basics and definitions:

(a) static stability, positive, neutral and negative;

(b) precondition for dynamic stability;

(c)  dynamic stability, positive, neutral and negative.

x

x

 

 

 

Location of centre of gravity: 

(a) aft limit and minimum stability margin;

(b) forward position;

(c) effects on static and dynamic stability.

x

x

 

 

 

Dynamic lateral or directional stability

 

 

 

 

 

Spiral dive and corrective actions 

x

x

 

 

 

Control

 

 

 

 

 

General

 

 

 

 

 

Basics, the three planes and three axis

x

x

 

 

 

Angle of attack change

x

x

 

 

 

Pitch control

 

 

 

 

 

Elevator

x

x

 

 

 

Downwash effects

x

x

 

 

 

Location of centre of gravity

x

x

 

 

 

Yaw control

 

 

 

 

 

Pedal or rudder

x

x

 

 

 

Roll control

 

 

 

 

 

Ailerons: function in different phases of flight

x

x

 

 

 

Adverse yaw

x

x

 

 

 

Means to avoid adverse yaw:

(a)  frise ailerons;

(b) differential ailerons deflection.

x

x

 

 

 

Means to reduce control forces

 

 

 

 

 

Aerodynamic balance: 

(a)  balance tab and anti-balance tab;

(b)  servo tab.

x

x

 

 

 

Mass balance

 

 

 

 

 

Reasons to balance: means

x

x

 

 

 

Trimming

 

 

 

 

 

Reasons to trim

x

x

 

 

 

Trim tabs

x

x

 

 

 

Limitations

 

 

 

 

 

Operating limitations

 

 

 

 

 

Flutter

x

x

 

 

 

vfe

x

x

 

 

 

vno, vne

x

x

 

 

 

Manoeuvring envelope

 

 

 

 

 

Manoeuvring load diagram:

(a)  load factor;

(b) accelerated stall speed;

(c) va;

(d) manoeuvring limit load factor or certification category.

x

x

 

 

 

Contribution of mass

x

x

 

 

 

Gust envelope

 

 

 

 

 

Gust load diagram

x

x

 

 

 

Factors contributing to gust loads

x

x

 

 

 

Propellers

 

 

 

 

 

Conversion of engine torque to thrust

 

 

 

 

 

Meaning of pitch

x

x

 

 

 

Blade twist

x

x

 

 

 

Effects of ice on propeller

x

x

 

 

 

Engine failure or engine stop

 

 

 

 

 

Windmilling drag

x

x

 

 

 

Moments due to propeller operation

 

 

 

 

 

Torque reaction

x

x

 

 

 

Asymmetric slipstream effect

x

x

 

 

 

Asymmetric blade effect

x

x

 

 

 

Flight mechanics

 

 

 

 

 

Forces acting on an aeroplane

 

 

 

 

 

Straight horizontal steady flight

x

x

 

 

 

Straight steady climb

x

x

 

 

 

Straight steady descent

x

x

 

 

 

Straight steady glide

x

x

 

 

 

Steady coordinated turn: 

(a) bank angle;

(b) load factor;

(c)  turn radius;

(d)  rate one turn.

x

x

 

 

5.2.

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: HELICOPTER

 

 

 

 

 

Subsonic aerodynamics

 

 

 

 

 

Basic concepts, laws and definitions

 

 

x

x

 

Conversion of units 

 

 

x

x

 

Definitions and basic concepts about air:

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

(a) the atmosphere and International Standard Atmosphere;

(b) density;

(c) influence of pressure and temperature on density.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Newton’s laws:

(a) Newton’s second law: Momentum equation;

(b) Newton’s third law: action and reaction.

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Basic concepts about airflow:

(a) steady airflow and unsteady airflow;

(b) Bernoulli’s equation;

(c) static pressure, dynamic pressure, total pressure and stagnation point;

(d) TAS and IAS;

(e) two-dimensional airflow and three-dimensional airflow;

(f) viscosity and boundary layer.

 

 

 

 

  

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

Two-dimensional airflow 

 

 

x

x

 

 

Aerofoil section geometry:

(a)  aerofoil section;

(b) chord line, thickness and thickness to chord ratio of a section;

(c) camber line and camber;

(d) symmetrical and asymmetrical aerofoils sections.

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aerodynamic forces on aerofoil elements: 

(a) angle of attack; 

(b) pressure distribution;

(c)  lift and lift coefficient

(d) relation lift coefficient: angle of attack;

(e) profile drag and drag coefficient;

(f)  relation drag coefficient: angle of attack;

(g) resulting force, centre of pressure and pitching moment.

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Stall:

(a) boundary layer and reasons for stalling; 

(b) variation of lift and drag as a function of angle of attack;

(c)  displacement of the centre of pressure and pitching moment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Disturbances due to profile contamination:

(a)  ice contamination;

(b)  ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice).

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage 

 

 

x

x

 

The wing: 

 

 

x

x

 

(a)  planform, rectangular and tapered wings;

 

 

 

 

 

(b)  wing twist.

 

 

 

 

 

Airflow pattern and influence on lift:

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

(a) span wise flow on upper and lower surface; 

(b) tip vortices; 

(c) span-wise lift distribution.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Induced drag: causes and vortices 

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

The airflow round a fuselage: 

(a) components of a fuselage;

(b) parasite drag;

(c)  variation with speed.

  

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

Transonic aerodynamics and compressibility effects

 

 

 

 

 

Airflow velocities

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Airflow speeds:

(a) speed of sound;

(b) subsonic, high subsonic and supersonic flows.

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Shock waves:

(a) compressibility and shock waves;

(b) the reasons for their formation at upstream high subsonic airflow;

(c)  their effect on lift and drag.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

Influence of wing planform: sweep-angle 

 

 

x

x

 

Rotorcraft types

 

 

x

x

 

Rotorcraft 

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Rotorcraft types: 

(a) autogyro;

(b) helicopter.

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Helicopters

 

 

x

x

 

Helicopters configurations: the single main rotor helicopter

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

The helicopter, characteristics and associated terminology: 

(a) general lay-out, fuselage, engine and gearbox; 

(b) tail rotor, fenestron and NOTAR;

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

(c) engines (reciprocating and turbo shaft engines);

(d) power transmission;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(e) rotor shaft axis, rotor hub and rotor blades;

(f) rotor disc and rotor disc area;

(g) teetering rotor (two blades) and rotors with more than two blades;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(h) skids and wheels;

(i) helicopter axes and fuselage centre line;

 

 

 

 

 

 

(j) roll axis, pitch axis and normal or yaw axis;

(k) gross mass, gross weight and disc loading.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Main rotor aerodynamics

 

 

x

x

 

Hover flight outside ground effect

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Airflow through the rotor discs and round the blades: 

(a) circumferential velocity of the blade sections;

(b) induced airflow, through the disc and downstream;

(c) downward fuselage drag;

(d) equilibrium of rotor thrust, weight and fuselage drag;

(e) rotor disc induced power;

(f) relative airflow to the blade;

(g) pitch angle and angle of attack of a blade section;

(h) lift and profile drag on the blade element;

(i) resulting lift and thrust on the blade and rotor thrust;

(j) collective pitch angle changes and necessity of blade feathering;

(k) required total main rotor-torque and rotor-power;

(l) influence of the air density.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Anti-torque force and tail rotor: 

(a) force of tail rotor as a function of main rotor-torque;

(b) anti-torque rotor power;

(c) necessity of blade feathering of tail rotor blades and yaw pedals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Maximum hover altitude OGE: 

(a) total power required and power available;

(b) maximum hover altitude as a function of pressure altitude and OAT.

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Vertical climb

 

 

x

x

 

Relative airflow and angles of attack: 

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) climb velocity VC, induced and relative velocity and angle of attack;

(b) collective pitch angle and blade feathering.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Power and vertical speed: 

(a)  induced power, climb power and profile power;

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

(b)  total main rotor power and main rotor torque;

 

 

 

 

 

(c)  tail rotor power;

 

 

 

 

 

(d)  total power requirement in vertical flight.

 

 

 

 

 

Forward flight

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Airflow and forces in uniform inflow distribution: 

(a) assumption of uniform inflow distribution on rotor disc;

(b) advancing blade (90°) and retreating blade (270°);

(c) airflow velocity relative to the blade sections, area of reverse flow;

(d) lift on the advancing and retreating blades at constant pitch angles;

(e) necessity of cyclic pitch changes;

(f) compressibility effects on the advancing blade tip and speed limitations;

(g) high angle of attack on the retreating blade, blade stall and speed limitations;

(h) thrust on rotor disc and tilt of thrust vector;

(i) vertical component of the thrust vector and gross weight equilibrium;

(j) horizontal component of the thrust vector and drag equilibrium.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The flare (power flight):

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) thrust reversal and increase in rotor thrust;

(b)  increase of rotor RPM on non governed rotor.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Power and maximum speed:

(a)  induced power as a function of helicopter speed;

(b)  rotor profile power as a function of helicopter speed;

(c)  fuselage drag and parasite power as a function of forward speed;

(d)  tail rotor power and power ancillary equipment;

(e)  total power requirement as a function of forward speed;

(f)  influence of helicopter mass, air density and drag of additional external equipment;

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

(g)  translational lift and influence on power required.

 

 

 

 

 

Hover and forward flight in ground effect

 

 

x

x

 

Airflow in ground effect and downwash: rotor power decrease as a function of rotor height above the ground at constant helicopter mass

 

 

x

x

 

Vertical descent

 

 

x

x

 

Vertical descent, power on:

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) airflow through the rotor, low and moderate descent speeds;

(b) vortex ring state, settling with power and consequences.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Autorotation:

(a)  collective lever position after failure;

(b) up flow through the rotor, auto-rotation and anti-autorotation rings;

(c) tail rotor thrust and yaw control;

(d) control of rotor RPM with collective lever;

(e) landing after increase of rotor thrust by pulling collective and reduction in vertical speed.

 

 

x

x

 

 

Forward flight: Autorotation

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Airflow through the rotor disc: 

(a) descent speed and up flow through the disc;

(b) the flare, increase in rotor thrust, reduction of vertical speed and ground speed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Flight and landing: 

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

(a) turning;

(b) flare;

(c) autorotative landing;

(d) height or velocity avoidance graph and dead man’s curve.

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

Main rotor mechanics

 

 

x

x

 

Flapping of the blade in hover

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Forces and stresses on the blade:

(a) centrifugal force on the blade and attachments;

(b) limits of rotor RPM;

(c) lift on the blade and bending stresses on a rigid attachment;

(d) the flapping hinge of the articulated rotor and flapping hinge offset; 

(e) the flapping of the hinge less rotor and flexible element.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Coning angle in hover:

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) lift and centrifugal force in hover and blade weight negligible

(b) flapping, tip path plane and disc area.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Flapping angles of the blade in forward flight

 

 

x

x

 

 

Forces on the blade in forward flight without cyclic feathering:

(a) aerodynamic forces on the advancing and retreating blades without cyclic feathering;

(b) periodic forces and stresses, fatigue and flapping hinge;

(c) phase lag between the force and the flapping angle (about 90°);

(d) flapping motion of the hinged blades and tilting of the cone and flap back of rotor;

(e) rotor disc attitude and thrust vector tilt.

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

Cyclic pitch (feathering) in helicopter mode, forward flight:

(a)  necessity of forward rotor disc tilt and thrust vector tilt;

(b)  flapping and tip path plane, virtual rotation axis or no flapping axis and plane of rotation;

(c)  shaft axis and hub plane;

(d)  cyclic pitch change (feathering) and rotor thrust vector tilt;

(e)  collective pitch change, collective lever, swash plate, pitch link and pitch horn;

(f)  cyclic stick, rotating swash plate and pitch link movement and phase angle.

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

Blade lag motion

 

 

x

x

 

Forces on the blade in the disc plane (tip path plane) in forward flight:

(a) forces due to the Coriolis effect because of the flapping;

(b) alternating stresses and the need of the drag or lag hinge.

 

 

x

x

 

 

The drag or lag hinge: 

(a)  the drag hinge in the fully articulated rotor;

(b)  the lag flexure in the hinge less rotor;
(c)  drag dampers.

 

 

x

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ground resonance:

(a) blade lag motion and movement of the centre of gravity of the blades and the rotor;

(b) oscillating force on the fuselage;

(c) fuselage, undercarriage and resonance.

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Rotor systems

 

 

x

x

 

See-saw or teetering rotor

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Fully articulated rotor:

(a) three hinges arrangement;

(b) bearings and elastomeric hinges.

 

 

  

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Hinge less rotor and bearing less rotor

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Blade sailing:

(a) low rotor RPM and effect of adverse wind;

(b) minimising the danger;

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

(c)  droop stops.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vibrations due to main rotor:

(a) origins of the vibrations: in plane and vertical;

(b) blade tracking and balancing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

Tail rotors

 

 

x

x

 

Conventional tail rotor

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

 

Rotor description:

(a) two-blades tail rotors with teetering hinge;

(b) rotors with more than two blades;

(c) feathering bearings and flapping hinges;

(d) dangers to people and to the tail rotor, rotor height and safety.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aerodynamics:

(a) induced airflow and tail rotor thrust;

(b) thrust control by feathering, tail rotor drift and roll;

(c) effect of tail rotor failure and vortex ring.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

The fenestron: technical lay-out

 

 

x

x

 

The NOTAR: technical lay-out 

 

 

x

x

 

Vibrations: high frequency vibrations due to the tail rotors

 

 

x

x

 

Equilibrium, stability and control

 

 

x

x

 

Equilibrium and helicopter attitudes

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

Hover:

(a) forces and equilibrium conditions;

(b) helicopter pitching moment and pitch angle;

(c) helicopter rolling moment and roll angle.

 

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

Forward flight:

(a) forces and equilibrium conditions;

(b) helicopter moments and angles;

(c)  effect of speed on fuselage attitude.

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

Control

 

 

x

x

 

Control power

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) fully articulated rotor;

(b) hinge less rotor;

(c)  teetering rotor.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Static and dynamic roll over

 

 

x

x

 

 

Helicopter performances

Engine performances

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

Piston engines:

 

 

x

x

 

 

(a) power available;

(b) effects of density altitude.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Turbine engines:

(a) power available;

(b) effects of ambient pressure and temperature.

 

 

  

x

 

x

 

 

Helicopter performances

 

 

x

x

 

 

 

 

Hover and vertical flight:

(a) power required and power available;

(b) OGE and IGE maximum hover height;

(c)  influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density. 

  

 

 

 

 

 

x

 

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Forward flight:

(a) maximum speed;

(b) maximum rate of climb speed;

(c) maximum angle of climb speed;

(d) range and endurance;

(e)  influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density.

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

 

Manoeuvring:

(a) load factor;

(b) bank angle and number of g’s;

(c)  manoeuvring limit load factor.

 

 

 

 

x

 

x

 

 

 

 

Special conditions:

(a) operating with limited power;

(b) over pitch and over torque.

 

 

  

x

 

x

 

 

6.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

 

 

 

 

 

General

 

 

 

 

 

Operation of aircraft: ICAO Annex 6, General requirements

 

 

 

 

 

Definitions

x

x

x

x

 

Applicability

x

x

x

x

 

Special operational procedures and hazards (general aspects)

x

x

x

x

 

Noise abatement

 

 

 

 

 

Noise abatement procedures

x

x

x

x

 

Influence of the flight procedure (departure, cruise and approach)

x

x

x

x

 

Runway incursion awareness (meaning of surface markings and signals)

x

x

x

x

 

Fire or smoke

 

 

 

 

 

Carburettor fire

x

x

x

x

 

Engine fire

x

x

x

x

 

Fire in the cabin and cockpit, (choice of extinguishing agents according to fire classification and use of the extinguishers)

x

x

x

x

 

Smoke in the cockpit and (effects and action to be taken) and smoke in the cockpit and cabin (effects and actions taken)

x

x

x

x

 

Windshear and microburst

 

 

 

 

 

Effects and recognition during departure and approach

x

x

x

x

 

Actions to avoid and actions taken during encounter 

x

x

x

x

 

Wake turbulence

 

 

 

 

 

Cause

x

x

x

x

 

List of relevant parameters

x

x

x

x

 

Actions taken when crossing traffic, during take-off and landing

x

x

x

x

 

Emergency and precautionary landings

 

 

 

 

 

Definition

x

x

x

x

 

Cause

x

x

x

x

 

Passenger information

x

x

x

x

 

Evacuation 

x

x

x

x

 

Action after landing 

x

x

x

x

 

Contaminated runways

 

 

 

 

 

Kinds of contamination 

x

x

 

 

 

Estimated surface friction and friction coefficient 

x

x

 

 

 

Rotor downwash

 

 

x

x

 

Operation influence by meteorological conditions (helicopter)

 

 

 

 

 

White out, sand or dust 

 

 

x

x

 

Strong winds

 

 

x

x

 

Mountain environment

 

 

x

x

 

Emergency procedures

 

 

 

 

 

Influence by technical problems 

 

 

 

 

 

Engine failure

 

 

x

x

 

Fire in cabin, cockpit or engine

 

 

x

x

 

Tail, rotor or directional control failure

 

 

x

x

 

Ground resonance

 

 

x

x

 

Blade stall

 

 

x

x

 

Settling with power (vortex ring)

 

 

x

x

 

Overpitch

 

 

x

x

 

Overspeed: rotor or engine

 

 

x

x

 

Dynamic rollover

 

 

x

x

 

Mast bumping

 

 

x

x

7.

FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING

 

 

 

 

7.1.

MASS AND BALANCE: AEROPLANES OR HELICOPTERS

 

 

 

 

 

Purpose of mass and balance considerations

 

 

 

 

 

Mass limitations

 

 

 

 

 

Importance in regard to structural limitations

x

x

x

x

 

Importance in regard to performance limitations

x

x

x

x

 

CG limitations

 

 

 

 

 

Importance in regard to stability and controllability

x

x

x

x

 

Importance in regard to performance

x

x

x

x

 

Loading

 

 

 

 

 

Terminology

 

 

 

 

 

Mass terms

x

x

x

x

 

Load terms (including fuel terms)

x

x

x

x

 

Mass limits

 

 

 

 

 

Structural limitations

x

x

x

x

 

Performance limitations

x

x

x

x

 

Baggage compartment limitations

x

x

x

x

 

Mass calculations

 

 

 

 

 

Maximum masses for take-off and landing

x

x

x

x

 

Use of standard masses for passengers, baggage and crew

x

x

x

x

 

Fundamentals of CG calculations

 

 

 

 

 

Definition of centre of gravity

x

x

x

x

 

Conditions of equilibrium (balance of forces and balance of moments)

x

x